|
|
BioImages: The Virtual Field-Guide (UK)
FUNGI SS. (true fungi)
| Notes (MWS) |
The Fungi are a large group of organisms which are ubiquitous in terrestrial habitats. They are less abundant in freshwater habitats and comparatively rare in in the sea. Fungi are characterised by a filamentous growth form (mycelium), reproduction by haploid spores, and a sexual cycle which involves delayed nuclear fusion (dikaryon). A few groups form large sporulating colonies (mushrooms, toadstools, brackets etc).
Although usually thought of as decomposers, many have other lifestyles. Some are parasitic; a small number of these are of medical importance, but most are plant parasites and a few are economically very significant.
Other fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots (mycorrhiza). The fungus mycelium is able to permeate the soil further afield than the plant's root hairs and so can harvest minerals from a larger soil volume. These are made available to the plant while sugars from photosynthesis leak from the roots to the fungus. Many of the most striking autumn toadstools (Amanita, Cortinarius, Tricholoma, Boletus sl.) are mycorrhizal with forest trees (esp Oak, Beech, Hazel, Willow, Birch and Pine). Most other plants and trees are mycorrhizal with lower fungi like the Pea Truffles (Endogone). The exception is the Cabbage family, Brassicaceae, which is not known to form mycorrhizal associations and is rarely affected by Rust Fungi (the exception to the exception is Scurvy Grass - Cochlearia spp.) - this is probably due to the mustard oils which give them their distinctive flavour and smell.
Mycorrhizal fungi can be parasitised by higher plants, maybe with another fungus as intermediary. The plants formerly called "Saprophytes" fall into this category: there is insufficient nitrogen or useable carbohydrate in leaf litter to support a flowering plant.
Lichens are another example of fungi forming symbioses with photosynthetic organisms, in this case: algae or cyanobacteria. The combined organism is able to live in much harsher environments than either could alone. Some lichens grow just inside rocks (endolithic) where they wait for erosion processes to release their spores.
Prof D.L. Hawksworth has estimated that there are 6 species of fungus for every species of flowering plant, suggesting there are 1.5 million species of fungi on Earth. Less than 20% of these are known to science, although in Europe, which has been well-studied, the percentage is far greater. |
| Lab. techniques |
Except for some of the more distinctive larger species, microscopic examination is always required to identify fungi. Staining is often necessary to make hyaline tissues and spores visible - the question is what stain to use: as a rule of thumb: if it has basidia, use Phloxine; if it has asci, use Melzer's Iodine; other hyaline ascomycete structures can be stained with Congo Red. Anamorphic fungi generally stain well in Cotton Blue, although dematiaceous hyphomycetes often need no staining. |
| Curation |
Fungal specimens are best preserved by drying.
Infected plant material can be pressed, although if there is superficial growth, this will be damaged and may be lost. Most people use gentle warmth for everything from leaf-spots to fleshy toadstools.
This can be as simple as the top of a radiator, although purpose-built driers such as those sold for drying fruit give the best results. Large fleshy species can be placed in the air stream from a fan heater for fast, effective results even with fragile species like inkcaps.
Infected leaves can be placed in folded blotting paper, lightly weighted on top to prevent them curling up too much.
The time taken to dry varies with the method, but can be from a few hours for infected leaves, overnight for small to medium toadstools, or longer for large toadstools or brackets. Large toadstools can become sealed by a dry layer on the outside, but leaving them at room temperature for a day allows the remaining moisture to soften this skin so drying can be resumed
Leaves will curl and go crisp otherwise weight is the easiest way to tell when a specimen is dry. At this point it's best to leave them at room temperature for a day to soften up, otherwise they can be very fragile.
Dried material keeps reasonably well but is attacked by a variety of pests, especially booklice and mites, and to a lesser extent museum/carpet beetles. Dried material is conventionally stored in paper envelopes, but this gives no protection from insects, so the envelopes need to be stored in batches in sealable plastic bags or boxes. Avoid storing the specimens directly in individual plastic bags as static electricity from handling the bags will make extracting the dried material all but impossible. |
Records (and photo sets)
| Taxon |
Summary |
Date |
Vice-county |
Country |
 |
 |
 |
| Fungi ss.? |
Infection |
22 April 2007 |
Surrey |
England |
|
4 |
|
| Fungi ss.? |
Imperfect stage |
22 April 2007 |
Surrey |
England |
|
2 |
1 |
| Fungi ss.? |
Imperfect stage |
22 April 2007 |
Surrey |
England |
|
12 |
4 |
| Fungi ss. |
Fruitbody |
20 October 2002 |
Oxon |
England |
8 |
3 |
5 |
Subtaxa
| Rank |
Taxon |
 |
|
|
|
 |
 |
 |
| Order |
AMOEBIDIALES Léger & Dubosq{?}, 1929 (an order of fungi) |
1 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Family |
AMOEBIDIACEAE J.L. Licht., 1916 (a family of fungi) |
1 |
|
|
|
|
|
1 |
| Aggregate |
Anamorphic fungi (mitosporic fungi) |
|
|
3 |
1 |
|
4 |
|
| Phylum |
ASCOMYCOTA Whittaker, 1959 (spore shooters) |
4597 |
2148 |
2272 |
2706 |
7 |
801 |
16167 |
| Phylum |
BASIDIOMYCOTA Whittaker, 1959 (spore droppers) |
3698 |
10021 |
4800 |
4779 |
1112 |
2079 |
15304 |
| Phylum |
CHYTRIDIOMYCOTA Arx, 1967 (chytridomycete fungi, chytrids) |
82 |
55 |
18 |
43 |
|
25 |
163 |
| Phylum |
GLOMEROMYCOTA C. Walker & A. Schüssler, 2001 (AM fungi) |
2 |
|
|
|
|
5 |
5 |
| Genus |
Rozella (a genus of fungi) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
1 |
| Species |
Sphaerococcus globosus (a lichen parasymbiont) |
|
1 |
|
|
|
|
|
| Phylum |
ZYGOMYCOTA Moreau, 1954 (pin moulds) |
118 |
79 |
53 |
114 |
|
51 |
234 |
| Informal |
(Ectomycorrhizal fungi) |
1069 |
3451 |
1317 |
1243 |
254 |
601 |
2720 |
| Informal |
(Gasteromycetes) (Puffballs, Earthstars, Earthballs, Stinkhorns, Truffles Etc) |
127 |
332 |
143 |
157 |
16 |
126 |
352 |
| Informal |
(Macromycetes) (Larger Fungi, Macrofungi) |
3028 |
9313 |
3881 |
3896 |
1228 |
1789 |
8693 |
Suggested Literature
Identification Works
| Fungi non Delineati (FND) |
Journal |
| Fungi Non Delineati raro vel haud perspecte et explorate descripti aut definite picti (Fungi Non Delineati) |
Journal |
| HYP3: Species - Crop diseases: http://www.inra.fr/internet/Produits/HYP3/species.htm |
Web Site/Page |
| Index of fungi pages or photographs on The Net: http://www.grzyby.pl/fglobal-directory.htm |
Web Site/Page |
| Mycotaxon |
Journal |
| Norwegian fungus of the month: http://www.uio.no/conferences/imc7/ |
Web Site/Page |
| Svampe: http://www.svampe.net/ |
Web Site/Page |
| Field Mycology |
Journal |
| Buczacki, S., 1989 |
Fungi of Britain and Europe |
| CMI Descriptions of Pathenogenic Fungi and Bacteria |
Journal |
| Darlington, A., 1968 |
A Pocket Encyclopedia of Plant Galls in colour |
| Dickinson, C. & Lucas, J., 1979 |
The Encyclopedia of Mushrooms |
| Phytopathology.net: http://www.phytopathology.net |
Web Site/Page |
| Hawksworth, D.L., 1983 |
A Key to the Lichen-forming, Parasitic, Parasymbiotic and Saprophytic Fungi occurring on Lichens in the British Isles |
| Ing, B., 1974 (Species growing on Myxomycetes) |
Mouldy Myxomyxcetes |
| Ing, B., 1976 (Species growing on Myxomycetes) |
More on Mouldy Myxomycetes |
| Fungi Images on the Net: http://www.in2.dk/fungi/imageintroTxt.htm |
Web Site/Page |
| Leatherdale, D., 1958 |
Host Catalogue of Britsh Entomogenous Fungi |
| Massee, G., 1911 |
British Fungi with a chapter on Lichens (British Fungi and Lichens) |
| Montecchi A. & Sarasini, M., 2000 |
Funghi Ipogei D'Europa |
| Rutter, G., 2002 |
Fairy Rings |
| Ryman, S., Holmasen, I., 1984 |
Svampar - en falthandbok |
| Fungi of Poland: http://www.grzyby.pl |
Web Site/Page |
| Leif & Anita Stridvall's Botanical Site: http://www.stridvall.se/la/index.php |
Web Site/Page |
| Stubbs, F.B. (Editor), 1986 |
Provisional Keys to British Plant Galls |
| Cercle de Mycologie de Mons (Belgique): (Page perso de JJ. Wuilbaut): http://users.skynet.be/jjw.myco.mons |
Web Site/Page |
General Works
| Cryptogamie, Mycologie (Cryptog., Mycol) |
Journal |
| Index Fungorum: http://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/NAMES.ASP |
Web Site/Page |
| Karstenia |
Journal |
| Persoonia |
Journal |
| Projet Aulnaies - programme d’inventaire et de typologie mycologique des aulnaies françaises: http://projet.aulnaies.free.fr/ |
Web Site/Page |
| Rev. de Mycol. |
Journal |
| Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew - RBG(K): http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/ |
Web Site/Page |
| Société Mycologique de France: http://www.mycofrance.org |
Web Site/Page |
| Sydowia, Annales Mycologici Ser. II |
Journal |
| UK Fungi discussion group: http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/Fungi-BritishIsles/join |
E-forum |
| 1973 |
The Fungi: An Advanced Treatise |
| 2007 |
Fungal Endophytes |
| Documents Mycologiques, Nouvelle série |
Journal |
| Bidartondo, M. & Gardes, M. |
Chapter in… |
| Blackwell, E., 2004 |
Some Hints on Identifying Wood in the Field |
| Bulletin of the British Mycological Society (Bull. Br. mycol. Soc.) |
Journal |
| Fungal Biology Reviews |
Journal |
| Mycological Research (Mycol. Res.) |
Journal |
| Mycologist |
Journal |
| Mycologist News |
Journal |
| News Bulletin of the British Mycological Society (BMSNB) |
Journal |
| Transactions of the British Mycological Society (TBMS) |
Journal |
| Burford, E.P., Kierans, M. & Gadd, G.M., 2003 |
Geomycology: fungi in mineral substrata |
| Burges, A., 1950 |
The downward movement of fungal spores in sandy soil |
| FRDBI Hosts: http://www.fieldmycology.net/FRDBI/assoc.asp |
Web Site/Page |
| Fungal Records Database of Britain and Ireland: http://www.fieldmycology.net/GBCHKLST/gbchklst.asp |
Web Site/Page |
| Crawley, M., 2005 |
The Flora of Berkshire |
| Dennis, R.W.G., 1986 |
Fungi of the Hebrides |
| Dickson, G. & Leonard, A., 1996 |
Fungi of the New Forest - A Mycota |
| English, M.P., 1971 |
Forays among the funguses of small wild animals |
| Evans, S., Marren, P. and Harper, M. |
Book/Report |
| Evans, S., in prep. |
Red Data List for Fungi |
| PRAs for consultation on pest risk management (Plant diseases) |
Journal |
| Finlay, R.D., 2005 |
Mycorrhizal symbiosis: myths, misconceptions, new perspectives and future research priorities |
| Studies in Mycology (Stud. Mycol.) |
Journal |
| Hall, G.S., Hawksworth, D.L. & Livingstone, S., 1994 |
Isolation of microfungi from soil and water samples from the Slapton Ley National Nature Reserve |
| Hawksworth, D.L., 2004 |
Fungi living on lichens: a source of unexplored diversity |
| Hodgetts, N.G., 1996 |
Conservation of Lower Plants in Woodland |
| Holden, L. |
Book/Report |
| Holden, L., 2006 |
Putting Fungi on the map: a new name and outlet for the BMS Fungal Records Database |
| Holliday, P., 1990 (Species causing plant diseases) |
A Dictionary of Plant Pathology |
| Ing, B., 1992 |
A provisional Red Data List of British fungi |
| Jones, E.B.G., 1988 |
Do fungi occur in the sea? |
| Association of British Fungus Groups (ABFG): http://www.abfg.org |
Web Site/Page |
| Libri Fungorum: http://194.203.77.76/Librifungorum/index.htm |
Web Site/Page |
| Landy, E.T. & Jones, G.M., 2006 (Checklist of European marine species) |
What is the Fungal Diversity of Marine Ecosystems in Europe? |
| Lindahl, B.D. & Olsson, S., 2004 |
Fungal translocation - creating and responding to environmental heterogeneity |
| Cybertruffle: http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk |
Web Site/Page |
| Money, N.P., 2004 |
The fungal dining habit: a biomechanical perspective |
| Newton, A.C. & Haigh, J.M., 1998 |
Diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi in Britain: a test of the species-area relationship, and the role of host specificity |
| Omar, M.B., Bolland, L. & Heather, W.A., 1979 |
A permanent mounting medium for Fungi |
| Orton, P.D., 1969 |
Notes on British Agarics III |
| Rätsch, A., 2005 (The main source of information on species containing psilocin etc) |
The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants. Ethnopharmacology and its Applications |
| Richardson, M.J., 1979 |
An Annotated list of Seed-borne Diseases |
| Notes from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh |
Journal |
| Kew Bulletin |
Journal |
| Botanical Dermatology Database (BoDD): http://bodd.cf.ac.uk/ (Allergens) |
Web Site/Page |
| Schwarze, F.W.M.R., Engels, J. & Matteck, C., 2000 |
Fungal Strategies of Wood Decay in Trees |
| Bulletin Mensuel de la Société Linnéenne de Lyon |
Journal |
| Bulletin de la Société Mycologique de France |
Journal |
| Spooner, B. & Roberts, P., 2005 |
Fungi |
| Taylor, A.S. & Alexander, I., 2005 |
The ectomycorrhizal symbiosis: life in the real world |
| Taylor, J.W., et al, 2000 |
Phylogenetic Species Recognition and Species Concepts in Fungi |
| The UK Provisional BAP species: http://abfg.org/bap1.php |
Web Site/Page |
| Mycologia |
Journal |
| Twomey, D.G., 1977 |
The rapid preparation of micro-fungi for microscopic observations |
| Watkinson, S.C., Boddy. L. et al, 2006 |
New approaches to investigating the function of mycelial networks |
| Watling, R., 1969 |
Colour Identification Chart |
| Watling, R., 1988 |
Presidential Address |
| Webster, J., 1980 |
Introduction to Fungi |
FUNGI SS. may also be covered by literature listed under:
Feeding and other inter-species relationships
Associated with FUNGI SS.:
|
|
is food source of female macropter |
Hoplothrips corticis - a thrips (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) |
|
Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976 |
|
|
is food source of female micropter |
Hoplothrips corticis - a thrips (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) |
|
Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976 |
|
|
is food source of male micropter |
Hoplothrips corticis - a thrips (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) |
|
Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976 |
|
|
is food source of larva |
Hoplothrips corticis - a thrips (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) |
|
Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976 |
|
|
is parasitised by clustered apothecium |
Unguiculariopsis ilicincola - a discomycete (Helotiales: Helotiaceae) |
|
Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1998 |
|
|
is parasitised by scattered, mostly superficial perithecium |
Syspastospora parasitica - a pyrenomycete (Hypocreales: Ceratostomataceae) |
|
Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1998 |
|
fruitbody (small) |
small fruitbody is food source of larva |
Aphodius plagiatus - a dung beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) |
|
Jessop, L., 1986 [in hollows on sandhills] |
|
fruitbody (small) |
fruitbody (small) is food source of adult |
Scolopostethus pictus - a ground bug (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) |
|
Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959 |
|
fruitbody (small) |
fruitbody (small) is food source of nymph |
Scolopostethus pictus - a ground bug (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) |
|
Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959 |
|
fruitbody (subterranean) |
subterranean fruitbody may contain larva |
Odonteus armiger - a dumbledor (Coleoptera: Bolboceratidae) |
|
Jessop, L., 1986 |
 |
fruitbody |
fruitbody is food source of |
Aradus depressus - a flat bark bug (Hemiptera: Aradidae) |
|
Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959 |
|
fruitbody |
fruitbody is parasitised by colony of Calcarisporium anamorph |
Calcarisporium arbuscula - an anamorphic fungus |
|
Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1997 |
|
hypha (live, shrivelled) |
live, shrivelled hypha is parasitised by hyphal coil of Arthrobotrys anamorph |
Arthrobotrys oligospora - a nematode-trapping anamorphic fungus (Orbiliaceae) |
|
Nordbring-Hertz, B., 2004 |
|
hyphae |
hyphae is food source of adult |
Drymus brunneus - a ground bug (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) |
|
Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959 |
|
hyphae |
hyphae is food source of nymph |
Drymus brunneus - a ground bug (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) |
|
Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959 |
|
hyphae |
hyphae is food source of nymph |
Drymus sylvaticus - a ground bug (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) |
|
Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959 |
|
hyphae |
hyphae is food source of adult |
Drymus sylvaticus - a ground bug (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) |
|
Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959 |
|
mycelium (live) |
live mycelium is mycorrhizal host of live root |
Goodyera repens - Creeping Lady's-tresses (Orchidaceae) |
|
Harrap, A. & S., 2009 |
|
mycelium (live) |
live mycelium is mycorrhizal host of live root |
Hammarbya paludosa - Bog Orchid (Orchidaceae) |
|
Harrap, A. & S., 2009 |
|
mycelium (live) |
live mycelium is mycorrhizal host of live root |
Liparis loeselii - Fen Orchid (Orchidaceae) |
|
Harrap, A. & S., 2009 |
|
mycelium |
mycelium is food source of nymph |
Aneurus avenius - a flat bark bug (Hemiptera: Aradidae) |
|
Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959 |
|
mycelium |
mycelium is food source of nymph |
Aneurus laevis - a flat bark bug (Hemiptera: Aradidae) |
|
Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959 |
|
mycelium |
mycelium is food source of adult |
Aneurus laevis - a flat bark bug (Hemiptera: Aradidae) |
|
Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959 |
|
mycelium |
mycelium is food source of nymph |
Aradus corticalis - a flat bark bug (Hemiptera: Aradidae) |
|
Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959 |
|
mycelium |
mycelium is food source of |
Aradus depressus - a flat bark bug (Hemiptera: Aradidae) |
|
Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959 |
|
mycelium |
mycelium is parasitised by sporangiophore |
Mortierella bainieri - a pin mould (Mortierellales: Mortierellaceae) |
|
Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1998 |
|
mycelium |
mycelium is parasitised by sporangiophore |
Piptocephalis repens - a pin mould (Zoopagales: Piptocephalidaceae) |
|
Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1998 |
|
sclerotium |
sclerotium is parasitised by fruitbody |
Tetragoniomyces uliginosus - a jelly fungus (Tremellales: Tetragoniomycetaceae) |
|
Legon, N.W. & Henrici, A. with Roberts, P.J., Spooner, B.M. & Watling, R., 2005 [in marshes] |
|
spore |
spore is food source of female |
Megalothrips bonannii - a thrips (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) |
|
Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976 |
|
spore |
spore is food source of male |
Megalothrips bonannii - a thrips (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) |
|
Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976 |
|
spore |
spore is food source of larva |
Megalothrips bonannii - a thrips (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) |
|
Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976 |
References
| Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1997 |
Microfungi on Land Plants: An Identification Handbook |
| Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1998 |
Microfungi on Miscellaneous Substrates: An Identification Handbook |
| Harrap, A. & S., 2009 |
Orchids of Britain & Ireland: a field and site guide |
| Jessop, L., 1986 |
Dung Beetles and Chafers (Coleoptera: Scarabaeoidea) |
| Legon, N.W. & Henrici, A. with Roberts, P.J., Spooner, B.M. & Watling, R., 2005 |
Checklist of the British and Irish Basidiomycota |
| Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976 |
Thysanoptera |
| Nordbring-Hertz, B., 2004 |
Morphogenesis in the nematode-trapping fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora – an extensive plasticity of infection structures |
| Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959 |
Land and Water Bugs of the British Isles |
|
