BioImages: The Virtual Field-Guide (UK)

FUNGI SS. (true fungi)

Notes (MWS) The Fungi are a large group of organisms which are ubiquitous in terrestrial habitats. They are less abundant in freshwater habitats and comparatively rare in in the sea. Fungi are characterised by a filamentous growth form (mycelium), reproduction by haploid spores, and a sexual cycle which involves delayed nuclear fusion (dikaryon). A few groups form large sporulating colonies (mushrooms, toadstools, brackets etc).

Although usually thought of as decomposers, many have other lifestyles. Some are parasitic; a small number of these are of medical importance, but most are plant parasites and a few are economically very significant.

Other fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots (mycorrhiza). The fungus mycelium is able to permeate the soil further afield than the plant's root hairs and so can harvest minerals from a larger soil volume. These are made available to the plant while sugars from photosynthesis leak from the roots to the fungus. Many of the most striking autumn toadstools (Amanita, Cortinarius, Tricholoma, Boletus sl.) are mycorrhizal with forest trees (esp Oak, Beech, Hazel, Willow, Birch and Pine). Most other plants and trees are mycorrhizal with lower fungi like the Pea Truffles (Endogone). The exception is the Cabbage family, Brassicaceae, which is not known to form mycorrhizal associations and is rarely affected by Rust Fungi (the exception to the exception is Scurvy Grass - Cochlearia spp.) - this is probably due to the mustard oils which give them their distinctive flavour and smell.

Mycorrhizal fungi can be parasitised by higher plants, maybe with another fungus as intermediary. The plants formerly called "Saprophytes" fall into this category: there is insufficient nitrogen or useable carbohydrate in leaf litter to support a flowering plant.

Lichens are another example of fungi forming symbioses with photosynthetic organisms, in this case: algae or cyanobacteria. The combined organism is able to live in much harsher environments than either could alone. Some lichens grow just inside rocks (endolithic) where they wait for erosion processes to release their spores.

Prof D.L. Hawksworth has estimated that there are 6 species of fungus for every species of flowering plant, suggesting there are 1.5 million species of fungi on Earth. Less than 20% of these are known to science, although in Europe, which has been well-studied, the percentage is far greater.
Lab. techniques Except for some of the more distinctive larger species, microscopic examination is always required to identify fungi. Staining is often necessary to make hyaline tissues and spores visible - the question is what stain to use: as a rule of thumb: if it has basidia, use Phloxine; if it has asci, use Melzer's Iodine; other hyaline ascomycete structures can be stained with Congo Red. Anamorphic fungi generally stain well in Cotton Blue, although dematiaceous hyphomycetes often need no staining.
Curation Fungal specimens are best preserved by drying.

Infected plant material can be pressed, although if there is superficial growth, this will be damaged and may be lost. Most people use gentle warmth for everything from leaf-spots to fleshy toadstools.

This can be as simple as the top of a radiator, although purpose-built driers such as those sold for drying fruit give the best results. Large fleshy species can be placed in the air stream from a fan heater for fast, effective results even with fragile species like inkcaps.

Infected leaves can be placed in folded blotting paper, lightly weighted on top to prevent them curling up too much.

The time taken to dry varies with the method, but can be from a few hours for infected leaves, overnight for small to medium toadstools, or longer for large toadstools or brackets. Large toadstools can become sealed by a dry layer on the outside, but leaving them at room temperature for a day allows the remaining moisture to soften this skin so drying can be resumed

Leaves will curl and go crisp otherwise weight is the easiest way to tell when a specimen is dry. At this point it's best to leave them at room temperature for a day to soften up, otherwise they can be very fragile.

Dried material keeps reasonably well but is attacked by a variety of pests, especially booklice and mites, and to a lesser extent museum/carpet beetles. Dried material is conventionally stored in paper envelopes, but this gives no protection from insects, so the envelopes need to be stored in batches in sealable plastic bags or boxes. Avoid storing the specimens directly in individual plastic bags as static electricity from handling the bags will make extracting the dried material all but impossible.

Records (and photo sets)

Taxon Summary Date Vice-county Country #photos #macrophotos #microphotos
Fungi ss.? Infection 22 April 2007 Surrey England 4
Fungi ss.? Imperfect stage 22 April 2007 Surrey England 2 1
Fungi ss.? Imperfect stage 22 April 2007 Surrey England 12 4
Fungi ss. Fruitbody 20 October 2002 Oxon England 8 3 5

Subtaxa

Rank Taxon #subtaxa #photos #macrophotos #microphotos #notes #refs #webs
Aggregate Anamorphic fungi (mitosporic fungi)     3 1   3  
Phylum ASCOMYCOTA Whittaker, 1959 (spore shooters) 4083 1981 2103 2561   388 14802
Phylum BASIDIOMYCOTA Whittaker, 1959 (spore droppers) 3655 9723 4691 4670 792 1572 14812
Phylum CHYTRIDIOMYCOTA Arx, 1967 (chytridomycete fungi, chytrids) 12 55 18 43   8 28
Phylum GLOMEROMYCOTA C. Walker & A. Schüssler, 2001 (AM fungi) 1         2  
Species Sphaerococcus globosus (a lichen parasymbiont)   1          
Phylum ZYGOMYCOTA Moreau, 1954 (pin moulds) 88 79 53 108   14 177
Informal (Ectomycorrhizal fungi) 1059 3380 1317 1213 232 458 2535
Informal (Gasteromycetes) (Puffballs, Earthstars, Earthballs, Stinkhorns, Truffles Etc) 121 321 143 141 13 95 334
Informal (Macromycetes) (Larger Fungi, Macrofungi) 3002 9238 3879 3868 901 1369 8521

Suggested Literature

Identification Works

Fungi non Delineati (FND) Journal
Fungi Non Delineati raro vel haud perspecte et explorate descripti aut definite picti (Fungi Non Delineati) Journal
HYP3: Species - Crop diseases: http://www.inra.fr/internet/Produits/HYP3/species.htm Web Site/Page
Index of fungi pages or photographs on The Net: http://www.grzyby.pl/fglobal-directory.htm Web Site/Page
Mycotaxon Journal
Norwegian fungus of the month: http://www.uio.no/conferences/imc7/ Web Site/Page
Svampe: http://www.svampe.net/ Web Site/Page
Field Mycology Journal
Buczacki, S., 1989 Fungi of Britain and Europe
CMI Descriptions of Pathenogenic Fungi and Bacteria Journal
Darlington, A., 1968 A Pocket Encyclopedia of Plant Galls in colour
Dickinson, C. & Lucas, J., 1979 The Encyclopedia of Mushrooms
Phytopathology.net: http://www.phytopathology.net Web Site/Page
Hawksworth, D.L., 1983 A Key to the Lichen-forming, Parasitic, Parasymbiotic and Saprophytic Fungi occurring on Lichens in the British Isles
Ing, B., 1974 (Species growing on Myxomycetes) Mouldy Myxomyxcetes
Fungi Images on the Net: http://www.in2.dk/fungi/imageintroTxt.htm Web Site/Page
Leatherdale, D., 1958 Host Catalogue of Britsh Entomogenous Fungi
Massee, G., 1911 British Fungi with a chapter on Lichens (British Fungi and Lichens)
Montecchi A. & Sarasini, M., 2000 Funghi Ipogei D'Europa
Rutter, G., 2002 Fairy Rings
Ryman, S., Holmasen, I., 1984 Svampar - en falthandbok
Fungi of Poland (and Czech Republic pro parte): http://www.grzyby.pl Web Site/Page
Leif & Anita Stridvall's Botanical Site: http://www.stridvall.se/la/index.php Web Site/Page
Stubbs, F.B. (Editor), 1986 Provisional Keys to British Plant Galls
Cercle de Mycologie de Mons (Belgique): (Page perso de JJ. Wuilbaut): http://users.skynet.be/jjw.myco.mons Web Site/Page

General Works

Cryptogamie, Mycologie (Cryptog., Mycol) Journal
Index Fungorum: http://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/NAMES.ASP Web Site/Page
Karstenia Journal
Persoonia Journal
Projet Aulnaies - programme d’inventaire et de typologie mycologique des aulnaies françaises: http://projet.aulnaies.free.fr/ Web Site/Page
Rev. de Mycol. Journal
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew - RBG(K): http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/ Web Site/Page
Société Mycologique de France: http://www.mycofrance.org Web Site/Page
Stud. Mycol. Journal
Sydowia, Annales Mycologici Ser. II Journal
UK Fungi discussion group: http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/Fungi-BritishIsles/join E-forum
1973 The Fungi: An Advanced Treatise
2007 Fungal Endophytes
Documents Mycologiques, Nouvelle série Journal
Blackwell, E., 2004 Some Hints on Identifying Wood in the Field
Bulletin of the British Mycological Society Journal
Fungal Biology Reviews Journal
Mycological Research (Mycol. Res.) Journal
Mycologist Journal
Mycologist News Journal
Transactions of the British Mycological Society (TBMS) Journal
Fungal Records Database of the British Isles (FRDBI): http://194.203.77.76/fieldmycology/FRDBI/FRDBI.asp Web Site/Page
Crawley, M., 2005 The Flora of Berkshire
Dennis, R.W.G., 1986 Fungi of the Hebrides
Dickson, G. & Leonard, A., 1996 Fungi of the New Forest - A Mycota
Evans, S., Marren, P. and Harper, M. Book/Report
Evans, S., in prep. Red Data List for Fungi
Finlay, R.D., 2005 Mycorrhizal symbiosis: myths, misconceptions, new perspectives and future research priorities
Hawksworth, D.L., 2004 Fungi living on lichens: a source of unexplored diversity
Hodgetts, N.G., 1996 Conservation of Lower Plants in Woodland
Holden, L., 2006 Putting Fungi on the map: a new name and outlet for the BMS Fungal Records Database
Holliday, P., 1990 (Species causing plant diseases) A Dictionary of Plant Pathology
Association of British Fungus Groups (ABFG): http://www.abfg.org Web Site/Page
Fungal Records Database of Britain and Ireland: http://www.fieldmycology.net/FRDBI/FRDBI.asp Web Site/Page
Landy, E.T. & Jones, G.M., 2006 (Checklist of European marine species) What is the Fungal Diversity of Marine Ecosystems in Europe?
Cybertruffle: http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk Web Site/Page
Orton, P.D., 1969 Notes on British Agarics III
Rätsch, A., 2005 (The main source of information on species containing psilocin etc) The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants. Ethnopharmacology and its Applications
Richardson, M.J., 1979 An Annotated list of Seed-borne Diseases
Notes from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh Journal
Kew Bulletin Journal
Botanical Dermatology Database (BoDD): http://bodd.cf.ac.uk/ (Allergens) Web Site/Page
Schwarze, F.W.M.R., Engels, J. & Matteck, C., 2000 Fungal Strategies of Wood Decay in Trees
Bulletin Mensuel de la Société Linnéenne de Lyon Journal
Bulletin de la Société Mycologique de France Journal
Spooner, B. & Roberts, P., 2005 Fungi
Taylor, A.S. & Alexander, I., 2005 The ectomycorrhizal symbiosis: life in the real world
The UK Provisional BAP species: http://abfg.org/bap1.php Web Site/Page
Mycologia Journal
Watkinson, S.C., Boddy. L. et al, 2006 New approaches to investigating the function of mycelial networks
Watling, R., 1969 Colour Identification Chart
Watling, R., 1988 Presidential Address
Webster, J., 1980 Introduction to Fungi

FUNGI SS. may also be covered by literature listed under:

BIOTA
(living things)
Eukaryota
(eukaryotes)

Feeding and other inter-species relationships

Associated with FUNGI SS.:

is food source of male micropter Hoplothrips corticis - a thrips (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976
is food source of female micropter Hoplothrips corticis - a thrips (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976
is food source of female macropter Hoplothrips corticis - a thrips (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976
is food source of larva Hoplothrips corticis - a thrips (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976
is parasitised by clustered apothecium Unguiculariopsis ilicincola - a discomycete (Helotiales: Helotiaceae) Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1998
is parasitised by scattered, mostly superficial perithecium Syspastospora parasitica - a pyrenomycete (Hypocreales: Ceratostomataceae) Minor Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1998
fruitbody (small) small fruitbody is food source of larva Aphodius plagiatus - a dung beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) Jessop, L., 1986 [in hollows on sandhills]
fruitbody (small) fruitbody (small) is food source of adult Scolopostethus pictus - a ground bug (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
fruitbody (small) fruitbody (small) is food source of nymph Scolopostethus pictus - a ground bug (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
fruitbody (subterranean) subterranean fruitbody may contain larva Odonteus armiger - a dumbledor (Coleoptera: Bolboceratidae) Restricted Jessop, L., 1986
Photos fruitbody fruitbody is food source of Aradus depressus - a flat bark bug (Hemiptera: Aradidae) Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
Photos fruitbody fruitbody is parasitised by colony of Calcarisporium anamorph Calcarisporium arbuscula - an anamorphic fungus Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1997
Photos hyphae hyphae is food source of adult Drymus brunneus - a ground bug (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
Photos hyphae hyphae is food source of nymph Drymus brunneus - a ground bug (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
Photos hyphae hyphae is food source of nymph Drymus sylvaticus - a ground bug (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
Photos hyphae hyphae is food source of adult Drymus sylvaticus - a ground bug (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae) Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
Photos mycelium (live) live mycelium is mycorrhizal host of live root Goodyera repens - Creeping Lady's-tresses (Orchidaceae) Harrap, A. & S., 2009
Photos mycelium (live) live mycelium is mycorrhizal host of live root Hammarbya paludosa - Bog Orchid (Orchidaceae) Harrap, A. & S., 2009
Photos mycelium (live) live mycelium is mycorrhizal host of live root Liparis loeselii - Fen Orchid (Orchidaceae) Harrap, A. & S., 2009
mycelium mycelium is food source of nymph Aneurus avenius - a flat bark bug (Hemiptera: Aradidae) Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
mycelium mycelium is food source of adult Aneurus laevis - a flat bark bug (Hemiptera: Aradidae) Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
mycelium mycelium is food source of nymph Aneurus laevis - a flat bark bug (Hemiptera: Aradidae) Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
mycelium mycelium is food source of nymph Aradus corticalis - a flat bark bug (Hemiptera: Aradidae) Questionable Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
Photos mycelium mycelium is food source of Aradus depressus - a flat bark bug (Hemiptera: Aradidae) Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
mycelium mycelium is parasitised by sporangiophore Mortierella bainieri - a pin mould (Mortierellales: Mortierellaceae) Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1998
mycelium mycelium is parasitised by sporangiophore Piptocephalis repens - a pin mould (Zoopagales: Piptocephalidaceae) Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1998
mycorrhiza mycorrhiza is parasitised by live root Epipogium aphyllum - Ghost Orchid (Orchidaceae) Questionable Spooner, B. & Roberts, P., 2005
Harrap, A. & S., 2009
sclerotium sclerotium is parasitised by fruitbody Tetragoniomyces uliginosus - a jelly fungus (Tremellales: Tetragoniomycetaceae) Legon, N.W. & Henrici, A. with Roberts, P.J., Spooner, B.M. & Watling, R., 2005 [in marshes]
spore spore is food source of female Megalothrips bonannii - a thrips (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976
spore spore is food source of male Megalothrips bonannii - a thrips (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976
spore spore is food source of larva Megalothrips bonannii - a thrips (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976

References

Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1997 Microfungi on Land Plants: An Identification Handbook
Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1998 Microfungi on Miscellaneous Substrates: An Identification Handbook
Harrap, A. & S., 2009 Orchids of Britain & Ireland: a field and site guide
Jessop, L., 1986 Dung Beetles and Chafers (Coleoptera: Scarabaeoidea)
Legon, N.W. & Henrici, A. with Roberts, P.J., Spooner, B.M. & Watling, R., 2005 Checklist of the British and Irish Basidiomycota
Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976 Thysanoptera
Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959 Land and Water Bugs of the British Isles
Spooner, B. & Roberts, P., 2005 Fungi

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